Christmas
Christmas Day |
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| Also called | Noël, Nativity, Xmas, Yule |
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| Observed by | Christians, many non-Christians[1][2] |
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| Type | Christian, cultural |
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| Significance | Traditional commemoration of the birth of Jesus |
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| Observances | Church services, gift giving, family and other social gatherings, symbolic decorating |
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| Date | December 25 (all Western and someEastern churches) or January 7, orJanuary 6 or 19 (several Easternchurches)[3][4][5] |
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| Frequency | annual |
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| Related to | Christmastide, Christmas Eve, Advent,Annunciation, Epiphany, Baptism of the Lord, Nativity Fast, Nativity of Christ, Yule |
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The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pagan,
pre-Christian,
Christian, and
secular themes and origins.
[26] Popular modern customs of the holiday include
gift giving,
Christmas music and
caroling, an exchange of
Christmas cards,
church celebrations, a
special meal, and the display of various
Christmas decorations, including
Christmas trees,
Christmas lights,
nativity scenes,
garlands,
wreaths,
mistletoe, and
holly. In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as
Santa Claus,
Father Christmas,
Saint Nicholas, and
Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of
traditions and lore.
[27] Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity among both Christians and non-Christians, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. The economic impact of Christmas is a factor that has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world.
Etymology
"Christmas" is a compound word originating in the term "
Christ's
Mass". It is derived from the
Middle English Cristemasse, which is from
Old English Crīstesmæsse, a phrase first recorded in 1038
[7] followed by the word Cristes-messe in 1131.
[28] Crīst (
genitive Crīstes) is from
Greek Khrīstos (Χριστός), a translation of
Hebrew Māšîaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ), "
Messiah", meaning "anointed";
[29][30] and
mæsse is from Latin
missa, the celebration of the
Eucharist. The form "Christenmas" was also historically used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal;
[31] it derives from Middle English
Cristenmasse, literally "Christian mass".
[32] "
Xmas" is an abbreviation of
Christmas found particularly in print, based on the initial letter
chi (Χ) in Greek
Khrīstos (Χριστός), "Christ", though numerous
style guides discourage its use;
[33] it has precedent in Middle English
Χρ̄es masse (where "Χρ̄" is an abbreviation for Χριστός).
[32]
Other names
In addition to "Christmas", the holiday has been known by various other names throughout its history. The
Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as "midwinter",
[34][35] or, more rarely, as
Nātiuiteð (from
Latin nātīvitās below).
[34][36] "
Nativity", meaning "birth", is from Latin
nātīvitās.
[37] In Old English,
Gēola ("
Yule") referred to the period corresponding to January and December, which was eventually equated with Christian Christmas.
[38] "Noel" (or "Nowell") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French
noël or
naël, itself ultimately from the
Latin nātālis (diēs), "(day) of birth".
[39]
History
The
Chronography of 354 AD contains early evidence of the celebration on December 25 of a Christian liturgical feast of the birth of Jesus. This was in Rome, while in
Eastern Christianity the birth of Jesus was already celebrated in connection with the
Epiphany on January 6.
[40][41] The December 25 celebration was imported into the East later: in Antioch by
John Chrysostomtowards the end of the 4th century,
[41] probably in 388, and in Alexandria only in the following century.
[42] Even in the West, the January 6 celebration of the nativity of Jesus seems to have continued until after 380.
[43] In 245,
Origen of Alexandria, writing about
Leviticus 12:1–8, commented that Scripture mentions only sinners as
celebrating their birthdays, namely Pharaoh, who then had his chief baker hanged (
Genesis 40:20–22), and Herod, who then had John the Baptist beheaded (
Mark 6:21–27), and mentions saints as
cursing the day of their birth, namely Jeremiah (
Jeremiah 20:14–15) and Job (
Job 3:1–16).
[44] In 303,
Arnobius ridiculed the idea of celebrating the birthdays of gods, a passage cited as evidence that Arnobius was unaware of any nativity celebration.
[45] Since Christmas does not celebrate Christ's birth "as God" but "as man", this is not evidence against Christmas being a feast at this time.
[7] The fact the
Donatists of North Africa celebrated Christmas may indicate that the feast was established by the time that church was created in 311.
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus' birth, with certain elements having origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated around the winter solstice by pagan populations who were later
converted to Christianity. These elements, including the
Yule log from Yule and gift giving from
Saturnalia,
[46] became
syncretized into Christmas over the centuries. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken,
carnival-like state in the
Middle Ages,
[47] to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a
19th-century reformation.
[48][49] Additionally, the celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain
Protestant groups, such as the
Puritans, due to concerns that it was too pagan or unbiblical.
[50][51]
Mosaic of Jesus as
Christo Sole(Christ the Sun) in Mausoleum M in the pre-fourth-century necropolis under
St Peter's Basilica in Rome.
[52]
Relation to concurrent celebrations
Prior to and through the
early Christian centuries,
winter festivals—especially those centered on the
winter solstice—were the most popular of the year in many European pagan cultures. Reasons included the fact that less agricultural work needs to be done during the winter, as well as an expectation of better weather as spring approached.
[53] Many modern Christmas customs have been directly influenced by such festivals, including gift-giving and merrymaking from the Roman
Saturnalia, greenery, lights, and charity from the Roman New Year, and
Yule logs and various foods from
Germanic feasts.
[54]
Pagan Scandinavia celebrated a winter festival called
Yule, held in the late December to early January period.
[55] As
northern Europe was the last part to Christianize, its pagan traditions had a major influence on Christmas there, an example being the
Koleda,
[56] which was incorporated into the
Christmas carol. Scandinavians still call Christmas
Jul. In English, the word Yule is synonymous with Christmas,
[57] a usage first recorded in 900.
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti
Main article:
Sol Invictus
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti means "the birthday of the Unconquered Sun", a festival inaugurated by the Roman emperor Aurelian to celebrate the sun god and celebrated at the winter solstice, 25 December.
[58][59] During the reign of the emperor Constantine, Christian writers assimilated this feast as the birthday of Jesus, associating him with the 'sun of righteousness' mentioned in
Malachi 4:2 (
Sol Iustitiae).
[58][59] In his work
Adversus Haereses,
Irenaeus (c. 130–202) identified the conception of Jesus as March 25 and linked it to the
crucifixion, with the birth of Jesus nine months after on December 25.
[60] Celebration of the conception of Jesus, known as the
Annunciation, became associated with the spring equinox, thus led to Christmas coinciding with the winter solstice.
[60] An anonymous work known as
De Pascha Computus (243) linked the idea that creation began at the spring equinox, on 25 March with the conception or birth (the word
nascor can mean either) of Jesus on 28 March, the day of the creation of the sun in the Genesis account. One translation reads: "O the splendid and divine providence of the Lord, that on that day, the very day, on which the sun was made, the 28 March, a Wednesday, Christ should be born. For this reason Malachi the prophet, speaking about him to the people, fittingly said, 'Unto you shall the sun of righteousness arise, and healing is in his wings.'"
[7][61]
In the fourth century,
John Chrysostom, who promoted the celebration on 25 December, commented on the connection: "But Our Lord, too, is born in the month of December ... the eight before the calends of January [25 December] ..., But they call it the 'Birthday of the Unconquered'. Who indeed is so unconquered as Our Lord ...? Or, if they say that it is the birthday of the Sun, He is the Sun of Justice."
[7] With regard to a December religious feast of the sun as a god (Sol), as distinct from a solstice feast of the (re)birth of the astronomical sun, one scholar has commented that, "while the winter solstice on or around December 25 was well established in the Roman imperial calendar, there is no evidence that a religious celebration of Sol on that day antedated the celebration of Christmas".
[62] "Thomas Talley has shown that, although the Emperor Aurelian's dedication of a temple to the sun god in the Campus Martius (C.E. 274) probably took place on the 'Birthday of the Invincible Sun' on December 25, the cult of the sun in pagan Rome ironically did not celebrate the winter solstice nor any of the other quarter-tense days, as one might expect."
[60] The
Oxford Companion to Christian Thought remarks on the uncertainty about the order of precedence between the religious celebrations of the Birthday of the Unconquered Sun and of the birthday of Jesus, stating that the hypothesis that 25 December was chosen for celebrating the birth of Jesus on the basis of the belief that his conception occurred on 25 March "potentially establishes 25 December as a Christian festival before Aurelian's decree, which, when promulgated, might have provided for the Christian feast both opportunity and challenge".
[63]
Feast established
The Examination and Trial of Father Christmas, (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England.
Middle Ages
In the
Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in
western Christianity focused on the visit of the
magi. But the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of
St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent.
[47] In Italy, former
Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent.
[47] Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the
Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or
Twelve Holy Days.
[47]
By the
High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various
magnates celebrated Christmas.
King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which twenty-eight oxen and three hundred sheep were eaten.
[47] The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts.
Caroling also became popular, and was originally a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Various writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form.
[47] "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on
New Year's Day, and there was special Christmas ale.
[47]
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated
ivy,
holly, and other evergreens.
[66] Christmas
gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord.
[66] The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607,
King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games.
[67] It was during the
Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or
Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
[68]
Reformation to the 18th century
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks
Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with
holly and shouted
royalist slogans.
[50] The book,
The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", and carol singing.
[69] The
Restoration of
King Charles II in 1660 ended the ban, but many clergymen still disapproved of Christmas celebration. In
Scotland, the Presbyterian
Church of Scotland also discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though
James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant.
[70] The
Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days".
[71] It was not until 1958 that Christmas again became a Scottish public holiday.
[72]
Despite the disapproval of many people in Britain, others continued to celebrate the Christmas season. Following the Restoration, Poor Robins Almanack contained the lines:
- Now thanks to God for Charles return
- Whose absence made old Christmas mourn
- For then we scarcely did it know
- Whether it Christmas were or no[73]
The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.
[74]
In
Colonial America, the
Puritans of
New England shared radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas. Celebration was outlawed in
Boston from 1659 to 1681. The ban by the Pilgrims was revoked in 1681 by English governor
Sir Edmund Andros, however it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
[51]
At the same time, Christian residents of
Virginia and
New York observed the holiday freely.
Pennsylvania German Settlers, pre-eminently the
Moravian settlers of
Bethlehem,
Nazareth and
Lititz in Pennsylvania and the
Wachovia Settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes.
[75] Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the
American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.
[76] George Washington attacked
Hessian (German) mercenaries on the day after Christmas during the
Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, Christmas being much more popular in Germany than in America at this time.
19th century
In the early 19th century, writers imagined
Tudor Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1843,
Charles Dickens wrote the novel
A Christmas Carol that helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment.
[48][49] Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.
[77]
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, in contrast to the community-based and church-centered observations, the observance of which had dwindled during the late 18th century and early 19th century.
[78] Superimposing his secular vision of the holiday, Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit.
[79] A prominent phrase from the tale,
"Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story.
[80] This coincided with the appearance of the
Oxford Movement and the growth of
Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.
[81]
An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the
Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in the United States in 1850.
[86][87] By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.
[86]
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several
short stories by
Washington Irving which appear in his
The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in
Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned,
[88] and he used the tract
Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.
[67]
In 1822,
Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem
A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line:
Twas the Night Before Christmas).
[89] The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance.
[90] This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated
commercialismthat some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book
The First Christmas in New England,
Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that
the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.
[91]
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S.,
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so."
[92] In
Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."
[92]
The First Congregational Church of Rockford,
Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864.
[92] By 1860, fourteen states including several from
New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday.
[93] In 1875,
Louis Prangintroduced the
Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card".
[94] In 1885, Christmas was formally declared a
United States federal holiday.
[95]
Traditions
Map of countries where Christmas is not a formal public holiday either on December 24/25 or January 6/7.
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and
public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian countries, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g.
Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the secular aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees.
Countries in which Christmas is not a formal public holiday include
Afghanistan,
Algeria,
Azerbaijan,
Bahrain,
Bhutan,
Cambodia,
China (excepting
Hong Kong and
Macao),
Comoros,
Iran,
Israel,
Japan,
Kuwait,
Laos,
Libya,
Maldives,
Mauritania,
Mongolia,
Morocco,
North Korea,
Oman,
Pakistan,
Qatar,
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic,
Saudi Arabia,
Somalia,
Tajikistan,
Thailand,
Tunisia,
Turkey,
Turkmenistan,
United Arab Emirates,
Uzbekistan,
Vietnam, and
Yemen. Christmas celebrations around the world can vary markedly in form, reflecting differing cultural and national traditions.
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For Christians, participating in a religious service plays an important part in the recognition of the season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of highest annual church attendance. In
Catholic countries, people hold religious processions or
parades in the days preceding Christmas. In other countries, secular processions or parades featuring Santa Claus and other seasonal figures are often held. Family reunions and the exchange of gifts are a widespread feature of the season. Gift giving takes place on Christmas Day in most countries. Others practice gift giving on December 6, Saint Nicholas Day, and January 6,
Epiphany.
Commemorating Jesus' birth
Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst depicts the nativity of
Jesus
According to popular tradition, the birth took place in a stable, surrounded by farm animals. A
manger(that is, a feeding trough) is mentioned in
Luke 2:7, where it states Mary "wrapped him in swaddling clothes and laid him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn" (
KJV); and "She wrapped him in cloths and placed him in a manger, because there was no guest room available for them" (
NIV).
Shepherds from the fields surrounding Bethlehem were told of the birth by an
angel, and were the first to see the child.
[99] Popular tradition also holds that three kings or wise men (named Melchior,
Caspar, and
Balthazar) visited the infant Jesus in the manger, though this does not strictly follow the biblical account. The Gospel of Matthew instead describes a visit by an unspecified number of
magi, or astrologers, sometime after Jesus was born while the family was living in a house (
Matthew 2:11), who brought gifts of
gold,
frankincense, and
myrrh to the young child Jesus. The visitors were said to be following a mysterious star, commonly known as the
Star of Bethlehem, believing it to announce the birth of a king of the Jews.
[100] The commemoration of this visit, the
Feast of Epiphany celebrated on January 6, is the formal end of the Christmas season in some churches.
Christians celebrate Christmas in various ways. In addition to this day being one of the most important and popular for the attendance of church services, there are other devotions and popular traditions. In some
Christian denominations, children re-enact the events of the Nativity with animals to portray the event with more realism or sing
carols that reference the event. A long artistic tradition has grown of producing painted depictions of the
nativity in art. Nativity scenes are traditionally set in a stable with livestock and include Mary, Joseph, the infant Jesus in the manger, the three wise men, the shepherds and their sheep, the angels, and the Star of Bethlehem.
[101] Some Christians also display a small re-creation of the Nativity, known as a
Nativity scene or crèche, in their homes, using figurines to portray the key characters of the event. Prior to Christmas Day, the
Eastern Orthodox Churchpractices the 40-day
Nativity Fast in anticipation of the birth of Jesus, while much of
Western Christianity celebrates four weeks of
Advent. The final preparations for Christmas are made on
Christmas Eve, and many families' major observation of Christmas actually falls in the evening of this day.
Decorations
A typical
Neapolitan presepe/
presepio, or Nativity scene. Local crèches are renowned for their ornate decorations and symbolic figurines, often mirroring daily life.
The practice of putting up special decorations at Christmas has a long history. In the 15th century, it was recorded that in London it was the custom at Christmas for every house and all the parish churches to be "decked with
holm, ivy,
bays, and whatsoever the season of the year afforded to be green".
[102] The heart-shaped leaves of
ivy were said to symbolize the coming to earth of Jesus, while
holly was seen as protection against pagans and witches, its thorns and red berries held to represent the
Crown of Thorns worn by Jesus at the crucifixion and the blood he shed.
[103][104]
Clifton Mill in Clifton, Ohio is the site of this Christmas display with over 3.5 million lights.
Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint
Francis of Asissi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe.
[105] Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets - renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful
Kraków szopka in
Poland,
[106] which imitate
Kraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate
Italian presepi (
Neapolitan,
Genoese and
Bolognese),
[107][108][109][110] or the
Provençal crèches in
southern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called
santons.
[111] In certain parts of the world, notably
Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches.
[112][113][114] The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children.
[115] In countries where a representation of the
Nativity sceneis very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family
heirloom.
The traditional colors of Christmas decorations are
red,
green, and
gold. Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his
crucifixion, while green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter, and gold is the first color associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the
Magi, symbolizing royalty.
[104]
From Germany the custom was introduced to Britain, first via
Queen Charlotte, wife of
George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the reign of
Queen Victoria. By 1841 the Christmas tree had become even more widespread throughout Britain.
[85] By the 1870s, people in the United States had adopted the custom of putting up a Christmas tree.
[86] Christmas trees may be decorated with
lights and
ornaments.
Since the 19th century, the
poinsettia, a native plant from
Mexico, has been associated with Christmas. Other popular holiday plants include holly,
mistletoe, red
amaryllis, and
Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with
garlands and
evergreen foliage. The display of
Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes during this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated
sleighs,
snowmen, and other Christmas figures.
Other traditional decorations include
bells,
candles,
candy canes,
stockings,
wreaths, and
angels. Both the displaying of wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an
evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths and are designed to prepare
Christians for the Advent season. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate the fact that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.
[121]
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played from speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places.
[122] It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured for the purpose of wrapping gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on
Twelfth Night, the evening of January 5.
Music and carols
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in 4th-century
Rome. Latin hymns such as "
Veni redemptor gentium", written by
Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to
Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poet
Prudentius (d. 413) is still sung in some churches today.
[123]
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under
Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed
stanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional
Christmas carol.
By the 13th century, in France, Germany, and particularly, Italy, under the influence of
Francis of Asissi, a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native language developed.
[124] Christmas carols in English first appear in a 1426 work of
John Awdlay, a
Shropshire chaplain, who lists twenty-five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of
wassailers, who went from house to house.
[125]
The songs we know specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on
medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "
Personent hodie", "
Good King Wenceslas", and "
The Holly and the Ivy" can be traced directly back to the
Middle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. "
Adeste Fideles" (O Come all ye faithful) appears in its current form in the mid-18th century, although the words may have originated in the 13th century.
Singing of carols initially suffered a decline in popularity after the
Protestant Reformation in northern Europe, although some Reformers, like
Martin Luther, wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship. Carols largely survived in rural communities until the revival of interest in popular songs in the 19th century. The 18th-century English reformer
Charles Wesley understood the importance of music to worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, which were influential in the
Great Awakening in the United States, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "
Hark! the Herald Angels Sing".
[126]
Felix Mendelssohn wrote a melody adapted to fit Wesley's words. In Austria in 1818 Mohr and Gruber made a major addition to the genre when they composed "
Silent Night" for the St. Nicholas Church, Oberndorf.
William Sandys'
Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833) contained the first appearance in print of many now-classic English carols, and contributed to the mid-Victorian revival of the festival.
[127]
Jingle Bells, 19th century (instrumental)
Completely secular Christmas seasonal songs emerged in the late 18th century. "
Deck The Halls" dates from 1784, and the American "
Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. In the 19th and 20th century, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holidays songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.
Traditional cuisine
A special
Christmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food that is served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions, such as
Sicily, have special meals for Christmas Eve, when 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey or goose, meat, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such as
Christmas pudding,
mince pies, and
fruit cake.
[128][129]
In Poland and other parts of eastern Europe and Scandinavia, fish often is used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular throughout the world. The
Maltese traditionally serve
Imbuljuta tal-Qastan,
[130] a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, after
Midnight Mass and throughout the Christmas season. Slovaks prepare the traditional Christmas bread
potica,
bûche de Noël in France,
panettonein Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes. The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the German
stollen,
marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods.
Cards
Main article:
Christmas card
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercial
Christmas card, produced by
Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843.
[131] The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging
E-cards.
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities, and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the
Christmas narrative with
depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or
Christian symbols such as the
Star of Bethlehem, or a white
dove which can represent both the
Holy Spirit and
Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more
secular and can depict
Christmas traditions, mythical figures such as
Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes and the wildlife of the northern winter. There are even humorous cards and genres depicting nostalgic scenes of the past such as
crinolined shoppers in idealized 19th century streetscapes.
Some prefer cards with a poem, prayer, or
Biblical verse; while others distance themselves from religion with an all-inclusive "Season's greetings".
Commemorative stamps
A number of nations have issued
commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail
Christmas cards, and they are popular with
philatelists. These stamps are regular
postage stamps, unlike
Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale some time between early October and early December, and are printed in considerable quantities.
In 1898 a Canadian stamp was issued to mark the inauguration of the Imperial Penny Postage rate. The stamp features a map of the globe and bears an inscription "XMAS 1898" at the bottom. In 1937, Austria issued two "Christmas greeting stamps" featuring a
rose and the signs of the
zodiac. In 1939,
Brazil issued four
semi-postal stamps with designs featuring the
three kings and a
star of Bethlehem, an
angel and child, the
Southern Cross and a child, and a mother and child.
Gift giving
The exchanging of
gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for
retailers and businesses throughout the world. Gift giving was common in the
Roman celebration of
Saturnalia, an ancient festival which took place in late December and may have influenced Christmas customs.
[46] On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the tradition associated with
St. Nicholas,
[132] and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the
Magi.
[133][134]
Gift-bearing figures
The best known of these figures today is red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name Santa Claus can be traced back to the Dutch
Sinterklaas, which means simply Saint Nicholas. Nicholas was Bishop of Myra, in modern-day Turkey, during the 4th century. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast on December 6 came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.
[68]
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the
Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or
Christkindl, corrupted in English to Kris Kringle, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
[68]
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors including
Washington Irving and the
German-American cartoonist
Thomas Nast(1840–1902). Following the
American Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town of
New Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.
[135]
In 1809, the
New-York Historical Society convened and retroactively named
Sancte Claus the patron saint of
Nieuw Amsterdam, the
Dutchname for
New York City.
[136] At his first American appearance in 1810, Santa Claus was drawn in bishops' robes. However as new artists took over, Santa Claus developed more secular attire.
[137] Nast drew a new image of "Santa Claus" annually, beginning in 1863. By the 1880s, Nast's Santa had evolved into the robed, fur clad, form we now recognize, perhaps based on the English figure of Father Christmas. The image was standardized by advertisers in the 1920s
[138] and continues through the present day: indeed, some have made a career out of portraying
Santa Claus, particularly if they are slightly overweight middle aged men with beards and a jolly disposition.
[139][140]
Father Christmas, a jolly, well nourished, bearded man who typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, predates the Santa Claus character. He is first recorded in early 17th century England, but was associated with holiday merrymaking and
drunkenness rather than the bringing of gifts.
[118] In
Victorian Britain, his image was remade to match that of Santa. The French
Père Noël evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image. In Italy, Babbo Natale acts as Santa Claus, while
La Befana is the bringer of gifts and arrives on the eve of the
Epiphany. It is said that La Befana set out to bring the baby Jesus gifts, but got lost along the way. Now, she brings gifts to all children. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by
Knecht Ruprecht, or
Black Peter. In other versions,
elves make the toys. His wife is referred to as
Mrs. Claus.
There has been some opposition to the narrative of the American evolution of Saint Nicholas into the modern Santa. It has been claimed that the Saint Nicholas Society was not founded until 1835, almost half a century after the end of the American War of Independence.
[141] Moreover, a study of the "children's books, periodicals and journals" of New Amsterdam by Charles Jones revealed no references to Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas.
[142] However, not all scholars agree with Jones's findings, which he reiterated in a book-length study in 1978;
[143] Howard G. Hageman, of New Brunswick Theological Seminary, maintains that the tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas in New York was alive and well from the early settlement of the
Hudson Valley on.
[144]
Current tradition in several
Latin American countries (such as
Venezuela and
Colombia) holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional
religious beliefs and the
iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
In
South Tyrol (Italy), Austria, Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary,
Liechtenstein,
Slovakia, and Switzerland, the
Christkind(
Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from
Saint Basilon New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast.
[145] The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a
bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by
Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.
[146]
Date
Irenaeus (c. 130–202) viewed Christ's conception as March 25 in association with the
Passion, with the nativity nine months after on December 25.
[60] Hippolytus of Rome (170–235) may also have identified December 25 for the birth of Jesus and March 25 for the conception.
[7][147] Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160–c. 240) identified December 25, later to become the most widely accepted date of celebration, as the date Jesus' birth in 221.
[148] The precise origin of assigning December 25 to the
birth of Jesus is unclear.
[148]Various dates were speculated: May 20, April 18 or 19, March 25, January 2, November 17 or 20.
[7][149] When celebration on a particular date began, January 6 prevailed at least in the East;
[150] but, except among Armenians (the
Armenian Apostolic Church and the
Armenian Catholic Church), who continue to celebrate the birth on January 6, December 25 eventually won acceptance everywhere.
[149]
The birth of Jesus was announced in
Luke 2:11, "For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord." Moreover, the belief that
God came into the world in the
form of man to
atone for the
sins of humanity is considered to be the primary purpose in celebrating Christmas.
[156][157][158]
In the early 4th century, the church calendar in Rome contained Christmas on December 25 and other holidays placed on solar dates. According to Hijmans
[159] "It is cosmic symbolism ... which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the
southern solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and the
northern solstice as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective dates of conception." Usener
[160] and others
[28] proposed that the Christians chose this day because it was the Roman feast celebrating the birthday of Sol Invictus. Modern scholar S. E. Hijmans, however, states that "While they were aware that pagans called this day the 'birthday' of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas."
[159]
Around the year 386
John Chrysostom delivered a sermon in
Antioch in favour of adopting the 25 December celebration also in the East, since, he said, the conception of Jesus (
Luke 1:26) had been announced during the sixth month of Elisabeth's pregnancy with John the Baptist (
Luke 1:10-13), which he dated from the duties Zacharias performed on the
Day of Atonement during the seventh month of the
Hebrew calendar Ethanim or Tishri (
Leviticus 16:29,
1 Kings 8:2) which falls from late September to early October.
[7]That shepherds watched the flocks by night in the fields in the winter time is supported by the phrase "frost by night" in
Genesis 31:38-40. A special group known as the shepherds of
Migdal Eder (
Genesis 35:19-21,
Micah 4:8) watched the flocks by night year round pastured for Temple Sacrifice near Bethlehem.
[151][161]
In the early 18th century, some scholars proposed alternative explanations.
Isaac Newton argued that the date of Christmas, celebrating the birth of him whom Christians consider to be the "Sun of righteousness" prophesied in
Malachi 4:2,
[22] was selected to correspond with the southern solstice, which the Romans called
bruma, celebrated on December 25.
[162] In 1743, German Protestant Paul Ernst Jablonski argued Christmas was placed on December 25 to correspond with the Roman solar holiday
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti and was therefore a "paganization" that debased the true church.
[25] It has been argued that, on the contrary, the Emperor
Aurelian, who in 274 instituted the holiday of the
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti, did so partly as an attempt to give a pagan significance to a date already important for Christians in Rome.
[163] In 1889,
Louis Duchesne proposed that the date of Christmas was calculated as nine months after the
Annunciation, the traditional date of the conception of Jesus.
[164][21]
Using the Julian calendars
Eastern Orthodox national churches, including those of
Russia,
Georgia,
Ukraine,
Macedonia,
Montenegro,
Serbia, and the
Greek Patriarchate of Jerusalem mark feasts using the older
Julian calendar. December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the internationally used
Gregorian calendar. However, other Orthodox Christians, such as the churches of
Bulgaria,
Greece,
Romania,
Antioch,
Alexandria,
Albania,
Finland, and the
Orthodox Church in America, among others, began using the
Revised Julian calendar in the early 20th century, which corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar.
[5]
The original date of the celebration in
Eastern Christianity was January 6, in connection with
Epiphany, and that is still the date of the celebration for the
Armenian Apostolic Church and in Armenia, where it is a public holiday. As of 2014, there is a difference of 13 days between the modern
Gregorian calendar and the older
Julian calendar. Those who continue to use the Julian calendar or its equivalents thus celebrate December 25 and January 6, which on the Gregorian calendar translate as January 7 and January 19. For this reason, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Serbia, Montenegro, the Republic of Macedonia, and the Republic of Moldova celebrate Christmas on what in the Gregorian calendar is January 7.
Eastern Orthodox Churches in
Bulgaria,
Greece,
Romania,
Antioch,
Alexandria,
Albania,
Finland, and the
Orthodox Church in America celebrate Christmas on December 25 in the
revised Julian calendar, corresponding to December 25 also in the Gregorian calendar.
Listing
| Church or section | Date | Calendar | Gregorian date | Note |
|---|
| Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem | January 6 | Julian calendar | January 19 | Correspondence between Julian January 6 and Gregorian January 19 holds until 2100; in the following century the difference will be one day more. |
| Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Catholic Church | January 6 | Gregorian calendar | January 6 | |
| Eastern Orthodox Churches, including those ofBulgaria, Greece, Romania, Antioch,Constantinople, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus,Finland and the Orthodox Church in America | December 25 | Revised Julian calendar | December 25 | Revised Julian calendar usage started in the early 20th century |
| Other Eastern Orthodox: Russia, Georgia,Ukraine, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro,Serbia and the Greek Patriarchate of Jerusalem | December 25 | Julian calendar | January 7 | Correspondence between Julian December 25 and Gregorian January 7 of the following year holds until 2099; from 2100 to 2199 the difference will be one day more. |
| Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria | Koiak 29 (corresponding to Julian December 25 or 26) | Coptic calendar | January 7 or 8 | Since the Coptic calendar's leap day is inserted in what the Julian calendar considers September, the following Koiak 29 falls one day later than usual in the Julian and Gregorian calendars |
| Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church | Tahsas 29 or 28 (corresponding to Julian December 25) | Ethiopian Calendar | January 7 | After the Ethiopian insertion of a leap day in what for the Julian calendar is September, Christmas is celebrated on Tahsas 28 in order to maintain the exact interval of 9 30-day months and 5 days of the child's gestation.[165] The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church uses the same calendar but, like the Coptic Church, does not make this adjustment. |
| Western Christian Church, secular world | December 25 | Gregorian calendar | December 25 | |
Economy
Christmas market in
Jena, Germany
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world. Sales increase dramatically as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the U.S., the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October.
[166][167] In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns just before
Halloween (October 31), and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid November, around the time when high street
Christmas lights are turned on.
[168][169] In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season.
[170] Figures from the
U.S. Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 billion in November 2004 to $31.9 billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6 million to 1.8 million in the two months leading up to Christmas.
[171] Industries completely dependent on Christmas include
Christmas cards, of which 1.9 billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas Trees, of which 20.8 million were cut in the U.S. in 2002.
[172] In the UK in 2010, up to £8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.
[169]
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. In
England and Wales, the
Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day.
Scotland is currently planning similar legislation.
Film studios release many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films,
fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for the
Academy Awards.
One
economist's analysis calculates that, despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a
deadweight loss under orthodox
microeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the U.S. alone.
[173][174] Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as
white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.
[175]
Controversies
Christmas has at times been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources. A Puritan-led controversy began during the
English Interregnum, when England was ruled by a
Puritan Parliament.
[176] Puritans sought to remove the remaining pagan elements of Christmas. During this brief period, the Puritan-led English Parliament banned the celebration of Christmas entirely, considering it "a
popish festival with no biblical justification", and a time of wasteful and immoral behavior.
[177] In
Colonial America, the Puritans outlawed celebration of Christmas in 1659.
[178]
In November 2009, the
Federal appeals court in Philadelphia endorsed a school district's ban on the singing of Christmas carols.
[186] The US Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal.
[187] In the private sphere also, it has been alleged that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its
religious aspects was being increasingly
censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of
advertisers and retailers. In response, the
American Family Association and other groups have organized boycotts of individual retailers.
[188]
In the United Kingdom there have been some minor controversies, one of the most famous being Birmingham City Council's temporary promotion of a Christmas-period festival, not Christmas itself, as "
Winterval" in 1998.
[189] Critics attacked the use of the word "Winterval" as
political correctness gone mad, accusing council officials of trying to take the Christ out of Christmas.
[189] The council responded to the criticism by stating that Christmas-related words and symbols were prominent in its publicity material.
[189] There were also protests in November 2009 when the city council of
Dundee promoted its celebrations as the "Winter Night Light festival", initially with no specific Christmas references.
[190]
See also
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